Blog 127 - Rajendra Cholan I (the Great)

The Ancient - Indian - Mariner - Part V - A History of the Cholas - Rajendra Cholan I

(Last part of the series of Five)

Mariners can relate to Rajendra Cholan I very easily, in view of the fact that the Training Ship "TS Rajendra” was named after him. 

Flag of the Cholas

To the uninitiated, TS Rajendra was the successor to the more famous TS Dufferin, after the latter was retired from service as a Training Ship, after long service from 1927 to 1972.

TS Dufferin - A nostalgic memory to many a sea farer

The TS Rajendra saw service training nautical cadets, from 16th April 1972 to 17th July 2014. After that, the land based TS Chanakya took over the mantle of training deck cadets.

The TS Rajendra was named after Rajendra Cholan I, the first Indian King who, formally, mobilised navies and used the ships to expand the Cholan kingdom far beyond Indian borders, fighting tactically strategic naval battles to defeat the enemy.

Not many know the history of Rajendra Cholan I. I will try my best, in this article, to bring out the greatness of the man, the king, the emperor, which contemporary history had consigned to footnotes due to only the colonial notions of history and bias being acceptable in intellectual circles.

Research into this neglected period is now going on in full swing. Old manuscript are being deciphered. Temple ‘kal vettus’ are being scrutinised inch by inch and are being translated from archaic Tamil script.

Most of the researchers are performing this yeoman service of their own volition and are unfunded. Had it been the US of A, millions in grants would have pored in. Hence progress is slow and uncoordinated.

Rajendra Cholan’s reign can be fitted into various categories.

Continuity: 

Very early in life, he was able to discern his Father’s - Raja Raja Cholan - grand vision of establishing the Chola dynasty as the greatest of the time. He also imbibed this vision and actually added to it in various ways to make that era the grandest of those who had gone before and those who came later. Two years before the death of his father, he was crowned, so for a couple of years the Chola kingdom had two kings. (It may be that he was crowned Crown Prince’).

Expanding his Empire - 

He went as far north as the Ganges and subduing all along the way, in his quest for bringing the holy water of the Ganga back to the artificial lake that he created near his future capital, Gangai Konda Cholapuram. I intend to refrain from writing about his shift of capital from Thanjavur to Gangai Konda Cholapuram, as it will involve me into writing several more chapters.

His armies expanded to about 900,000 troops, a formidable force for that era, due to which he was able to battle on several fronts simultaneously.

His navy expanded to about 12,000 ships of various sizes. They could not be classified as war ships, as they were used only to transport men, horses and elephants to an area where land battles were fought. Otherwise, they remained what they were - trading merchant ships. The largest of his ships could carry about a 1000 men (not corroborated).

The Cholas’ Naval Fleet size gave them a power beyond that of conquest. Their impact can be categorised into various segments, as below.

Indian Ocean Area and Trade = 

Much as in modern times, the prosperity of a nation depended, almost exclusively, on trade. The Cholas realised this very well. Land trade had its limits. Naval  trade, on the other hand, could boost the GDP of any nation state willing to take the risks that went along with the dangers that ships face at sea.

Further, with a large navy attending, unoccupied lands or islands could be annexed into their sovereign state. 

To give their traders more freedom of choice to launch their ships - and also to complete what his Father had started - Rajendra Cholan completed the conquest of the whole of Sri Lanka. This allowed their traders to hug the east coast of southern Sri Lanka and utilise the monsoon currents that were seasonal, to give them the impetus, along with (possibly) wind in their sails, to sail across to South East Asian nations.

The Guilds (well documented)

Each craft, each profession had their own Guilds - a union of sorts. Their wares were traded on land and on far-off shores. Being rich from the proceeds, they would often lend money to the king, finance projects, build and operate ships. The temples too were involved in financing voyages and partaking of the profits. Similarity to Lloyds of London?

The ease of the conquest of the whole of Sri Lanka made Rajendra realise the importance of a good fleet of ships. 

During this quest came the not unwanted prizes of Lakshwadeep Islands - when the Cheras were defeated in land battles - and Maldives. Maldives - called “Maala Theevu” in Tamil - meaning a ‘Garland of Islands’ - is, today, in the news for all the wrong reasons.

Rajendra also realised the strategic importance of Andaman ~ Nicobar Chain of Islands and annexed them. He used them primarily as staging points when needed.

The navy’s Influence on Diplomacy: 

Being the ‘Big Brother’ in the pack, almost all nations kept good diplomatic relations with the Cholas and asked for help if threatened by a neighbour. The Khmers were one such people who asked Rajendra for help when they were forced into battle with their neighbour, the Tambralinga Kingdom, who went to the Sri Vijaya king for help in fighting the Cholas. 

In fact, this and the imposition of toll from ships passing Malacca Straits led to outright war with the Sri Vijaya kingdom.

Influence on Culture through Naval Superiority: As ships increased, trade increased and flourished. Some Traders found themselves settling down and setting up businesses in South East Asian countries and brought the flavour of India to those lands. Intermarrying the locals, they became powerful in their own right, The proliferation of temples, be they Hindu or Buddhist, in these areas, is a testimony of Indian exported culture and art.

While the temples shown below were not built by the Cholas, the cross pollination of two cultures made these magnificent architectural wonders possible. (Except for Angor Wat, I have visited the other two, one in Indonesia and the other in Thailand).

Angkor Wat Main ‘Gopuram’ over the Main Shrine - Cambodia

Borobudur Temple in Indonesia

Wat Chaiwatthanaram Temple - Thailand

Ship Building : (gist taken from indiachapter.in)

With seas to the west and seas to the east, not to forget the vast expanse of an ocean south of the sub continent, it is inevitable that mariners were marinated in the cauldron of succeeding dynasties from times immemorial. From boats of rushes to logs tied together, followed by more robust boats from timber found in the lush monsoon forests of the Ghats, ship building designs and practices were part of the cultural workforce of every kingdom. The great monsoon forest, which was the hinterland of both the coasts, is home to some of the best hardwood timbers. Seawater resistant timber and quality of shipbuilding resources were available in plenty. 

Although iron was well known and in plentiful supply, the ship builders of those days, for some unknown reason, preferred not to use iron in building ships. Instead, they used wooden dowels to arrange, integrate and ‘stitch’ the planks together and caulking the seams with rope fibre, using binding (gummy) material to produce watertight ships. Any repairs only needed a sandbank to beach the ship, using elephants or horses or men to ‘dry dock’ the ship.

Despite large maritime enterprises, the Cholas have left very few records behind that can enthuse future historians, unless there are hidden treasure troves of maritime information that are waiting to see light of day.

Following are the gist or direct quotes from ‘indiachapter.in’ and ‘poe.com’.

Quote

Rajendra Chola's inscriptions mentioned the term kalam, which is a usual term for a ship. A Tamil inscription from Barus, Sumatra, dated 1088 CE mentioned marakkalam (timber ship). The size of the ship and where it was constructed are unknown. A Tamil inscription of about 1200/1256 CE from Krishnapattinam, on the Andhra coast, mentioned several sea vessels: There are marakkalam, toni, kalavam, vedi, and padavu. Their size is not recorded, Y. Subbarayalu thinks that the marakkalam may have been the biggest since it was mentioned first, and it may be about 4 times bigger than padavu since it was charged 4 times the charge on padavu. The toni (also pronounced as dhony) was charged the same amount as marakkalam, but according to Subbarayalu they may be smaller than marakkalam in size. The dhony continued operating in the 19th century, plying the routes between Sri Lanka and Madras (Chennai). The dhony was 70 feet (21.34 m) long, 20 feet (6.10 m) wide, 12 feet (3.66 m) deep, with no decks, and had one mast.[8]: 93–

Unquote

I am now quoting extensively from ‘poe.com’, quite a bit of it unsubstantiated by a second source.

The Chola Navy built powerful ships using advanced ship building techniques and technology that they had acquired through centuries of experience.

(My comment : The artisans, craftsmen, even shipwrights of thaat period and for centuries prior, were all from the same clan or set of families, expertise being passed from Father to Son, unlike today where the son abhors going into his Father’s trade, unless the Father is a politician.)

The Cholas were skilled in constructing sturdy wooden ships using advanced techniques such as stitching planks together with ropes and caulking the seams with materials like fibers and tar to make them watertight. Furthermore, the Cholas had access to a wide range of resources, including timber from the forests of South India, which enabled them to build large and powerful ships.

(My comment : Yes, corroborated by several sources, though few explain the ‘stitched ship project’ in detail. I suspect that the technique of using wooden dowels or dowel pins to hold large plank with the other, combined with using fibrous material for caulking the seams and sealing them with a gummy substance made for ‘stitched ships’). 

The Chola Navy was renowned for its innovative ship designs. Here are a few examples:

The "Kattumaram" or Catamaran: The Cholas employed catamarans, which were double-hulled boats, for various purposes. These vessels were highly stable and could navigate through shallow waters, making them ideal for coastal operations and riverine warfare.

My comment : ‘Kattumarams’ have been in existence for much more than three thousand years. It comes from 2 Tamil words - ‘Kattu’ meaning ‘tie together’ and ‘maram’ meaning ‘tree or wood’. The less prosperous fishermen on the Tamil Nadu coast, even today, put out to sea on a ‘kattumaram’ and fish for their sustenance. 

The "Kalamkari" Ships: The Cholas were known for their intricately designed and decorated ships called "Kalamkari" ships. These vessels featured beautiful artwork and motifs painted on their sails and hulls, showcasing the Cholas' artistic and aesthetic sensibilities. - Not corroborated anywhere. But there exists a school of ‘kalamkari’ paintings and art which are classified as tribal in origin.

War ships:  Equipped with cannon and catapults. Not corroborated.

Comments: Catapults? Possible. But Cannon? The first cannon’ that Indians saw was around 1493, when the Portuguese came to Kerala.

Trading Ships: The Chola Navy also developed efficient trading ships known as "Kappal." These vessels were specifically designed for long-distance trade, with large cargo holds to transport goods. They were built to withstand rough ocean conditions and had the capacity to carry significant quantities of merchandise. (Even today, ships are called ‘kappal’ in Tamil).

Dockyards: The Cholas established well-equipped dockyards along the Coromandel Coast, where ships were constructed, repaired, and maintained. These dockyards had skilled shipbuilders, blacksmiths, and carpenters who worked together to ensure the construction of seaworthy and technologically advanced vessels.

These innovative designs and advancements in shipbuilding techniques allowed the Chola Navy  to dominate maritime trade, establish commercial links with distant lands, and project their naval power across the Indian Ocean.

There is no doubt that decline of maritime trade came with the influx of invaders from tribes west of us and during the Moghul period.

In addition to their innovative designs, the Chola Navy utilized various types of ships for warfare. Here are a few examples:

That the Cholas used ‘fire ships’ and ‘padagus’ is well known. ‘Padagus’ are small boats, oars’ propelled and called ‘padagu’ till today in Tamil.

Naval tactics included blockades, fire ships, hit-and-run, boarding vessels in preparation for hand-to-hand combat.

The Chola Navy and Land Forces were well trained in various aspects of combat. Their numerical superiority and weaponry were definitely an added advantage.

Sri Vijaya Empire Clashes with the Cholas

After a long period of friendly relations with the Sri Vijaya dynasty who controlled most of the Indonesian islands, bad blood seems to have sprung up between the two during the reign of Rajendra I. Historians attribute one of two causes. Both causes were interrelated and had to do with helping the Khmers and the toll practice in the Malacca Straits.

The Sri Vijaya navy controlled the choke point of Malacca Straits and were demanding a toll / tax for all ships that pass, including the Chola ships that were on their way to China. The ships in transit were being boarded and taxes forced. This was anathema to the Chola traders, who had been peacefully plying their trade with China for centuries, without any interference, except for cases of piracy off the Indonesian coast. (This was dealt with by having armed warriors to stave off the pirates, eerily similar to today’s scenario in the Gulf of Aden). They complained to Rajendra, which was the spark that lit the itching fuse. It gave him an excuse to lead an army to subdue the Sri Viayas.

Sri Vijaya navy had practically blockaded the Malacca Straits.

Rajendra first took possession of Lakshwadeep and Nicobar islands, as an assembling point / place for his ships before the assault. (Very similar to the Modi Government who have realised the geopolitical importance of the location of these islands vis'-a-vis' the Straits of Malacca).

The domination of the Sri Vijaya Empire over the Malacca Straits continued for some time, till the Cholas built up their logistics that were needed to counteract the Sri Vijayas.

Basically, their ships were not naval ships in the true sense of the word, as they were not fighting ships carrying weapons of war. In fact, they were just larger versions of the merchantmen, accommodating a 1000 men with armoury. Others carried horses, elephants.

Their ships were two or four masted with sails as the main means of movement. To reach the Malacca Straits or other parts of South East Asia, they would go down the East Coast of Sri Lanka and then catch the Monsoon Current running just north of the Equator.

When they were blockaded by the Sri Vijayas, Rajendra sent his ships down the southern coast of Sumatra, crossed the Sunda Straits and attacked their capital, Malayu - Jambi, situated on the northern side of Sumatra., completely outflanking them and catching them off guard. Rajendra’s ships then continued into the Malacca Straits, catching Sri Vijayan navy by surprise, who found the Chola ships in front of them and also behind them. Thus fell the blockade. Along with the defeat, the Sri Vijaya dynasty too fell.

Selat Sunda) is the strait between the Indonesian islands of Java and Sumatra. It connects the Java Sea with the Indian Ocean.

The strait is notoriously difficult to navigate because of its shallowness, very strong tidal currents, sandbanks.

The Raja Raja Cholan ~ Rajendra Cholan era was when trade, west bound and east bound, flourished. Malaya, Cambodia, Indonesia, China were all trading partners.

Many traders settled down in all these countries and became rich businessmen, married into the important families, built large temples and establishing a cultural connect with all these countries, which continues till today. Their dominance in this area was more cultural than military.

In fact, the cultural connect between India and South East Asia goes back to 300 bce and beyond. 

A Maritime Love Story that started a Dynasty

An Indian merchant, in the 1st Century ce, became king of Cambodia.

Kaundinya, a young Brahmin mechant from Kalinga took his ship to South East Asia to trade. (“Kaundinya’ is actually the name of a ‘Gothra’ - a sort of clan descended from a Rishi thousands of years back). 

Legend has it that pirates, urged on by the local Chieftain, attacked Kaundinya’s ship. The attack was repulsed, but the ship was damaged. On beaching the ship to carry out repairs, the Chieftain’s daughter, Soma, - having seen how bravely Kaundinya had fought - fell in love with him and, thus, a dynasty (Funan) was born that lasted for nearly 6 centuries. (Unsubstantiated - It was a 'shotgun' wedding).

With cultural interaction between India and South East Asia being a continuous process over millennia, one culture influenced the other. Indians settled overseas, married and built temples and empires. Angor Wat is not the only one.

Long ago, while exploring Busan, South Korea I found an ‘Om’   ॐ  written at an entrance to a Shiv temple, which the locals were using as a place of worship, decorated with flowers. I was unable to find more background, as none spoke English.

The Love Story of Kaundinya and Soma

And, Lastly, How Did They Navigate their Ships?

It goes without saying that night navigation was through a thorough astronomical knowledge of the stars in the sky. Indians had mastered astronomy a long time ago, only that the names given to constellations and stars were different from what the west named them a few millennia later.

During the day? Tracking the sun was one way. 

Using balls of ash or throwing wood in the water were ways to establish presence of currents. Using land bred birds was one way of finding if land was nearby. The bird, when freed, would fly towards land, if there was land nearby or else return to the ship.

They calculated the speed of the ship using pieces of wood which were dropped from the foc’sle. The time taken for this piece of wood to reach the stern was established and then the speed of the ship calculated.

And, how did they establish “North”?

I happened to chance upon a paragraph, during my reading, of the use of a specific breed of monkeys, which they carried on the ship. These monkeys would, most times, sit facing north.

(I haven’t been able to track this bit down again).

Please do not query me whether it was ‘True North’ or “Magnetic North” - I wouldn’t know the answer.

Slender lorises oor, as known in Tamil, “Thevangu” - habitat southern Tamil Nadu and southern Sri Lanka

This compilation is a collation of an armchair researcher. I can make no claims to having personally seen the sites mentioned. Yes, my curiosity had been piqued in my early days, when visiting temples and seeing stone inscribed writings, wondering what exactly they were.

The sources of this 5 part article have been numerous, many from Tamil scholars who have made a study of it and enriched our national history, replacing the contrived colonial history, which paid little attention to the actual truth. It will take at least 2 to 3 decades before history texts start teaching students the actual history of our past, instead of the contrived history that has been served to us.

Not many have heard of the “Keezhadi” or “Keeladi” excavations that are bringing to light remarkable pieces of an advanced civisation.

As youngsters such as Shri Annamalai, BJP Party’s Tamil Nadu State President carry us along with their grand vision of an ‘Amrith Kaal’ of the future, old fogies like me tend to look backwards and inwards to what we missed out during our school days and trying to set the record straight. The past is as important as the future.

All material  for these articles are from open sources.

This is the last part of my article on Ancient Indian Mariners.

I contemplate the next subject.

Rangan