Blog 125 - The Ancient - Indian - Mariner - Part III

The Ancient - Indian - Mariner - Part III - A History of the Cholas

In life, the all encompassing ‘present’ is important. But without a good link to the ‘past’, there is no civilisational pride or prejudice to celebrate or mourn. It is akin to the cataclysmic event that increased sea levels that wiped out several civilisations.

I am referring to what has been termed as “Meltwater Pulse 1B”, which has been dated to have occurred about 11,600 years ago. This event occurred as a result of the collapse of continental ice sheets at the end of the last Ice Age, resulting in a rapid rise in sea levels globally.

Postglacial Sea level Rise Curve and Meltwater Pulses (MWP)  - Wikipedia

Present day scientists and astronomers have attributed this glacial melt to the earth coming closest to the sun, in a cycle that takes place every 26,000 years. (I read this somewhere, unable to find it again).

(In my last blog, I   had written about the “Sangam” age and the three “Sangams”, with the first “Sangam” lost to posterity and the submergence of ‘Kumari Kandam” or 'Lemuria', as the Europeans preferred to call it. In my opinion, the rapid sea level rise put paid to vast tracts of the more low lying land south of Kanyakumari, the first “Sangam” submerging with it. This is, of course, presently unsubstantiated. But efforts and research are on to prove this hypothesis).

Presumed Extent of "Kumari Kandam" that was submerged by melting of glacial ice

So, the ‘present’ has  a definite connection with the ‘past’.

Also, without the ‘present’, there is no ‘future’, as present day dreams find fruition only in the future.

So all three, the ‘past’, the ‘present’ and the ‘future’ are a closely bound continuum to any civilisation.

Our ancestors gazed at the stars, tracked them and identified them. They studied the moon, its orbits, its phases till they knew most of the knowledge we have today of the moon. (Past).

We have designed vehicles to take us into space or, for that matter, proudly soft landed near the south pole of the moon. (Present).

The next phase is travel to the stars, other galaxies. It is only a dream now, science fiction giving us volumes and volumes of imagined space flights, (Future).

This same continuum is a certainty for all of human endeavour, unless a cataclysm breaks the “Past - Present - Future” bond.

In this chapter (and probably the next), I intend to concentrate on the land exploits of the Cholas before, finally, going into their maritime enterprises. Although in existence even before 370 BCE, over 2300 years ago, they finally reached their zenith between the 9th and 13th centuries under Raja Raja Cholan, Rajendra Cholan I and Rajendra Cholan II, not to forget Karikala Cholan.

It is interesting to note that what the English called “Coromandel Coast’ is actually the anglicization of “Chola Mandalam”, a recognition given to the Cholas on their just reign for millennia. It took the English decades to inculcate people into the ‘Coromandel’ usage, rather than ‘Chola Mandalam’ - another example of erasing of history by the conqueror.

Credit : Orbis Info

Please do not miss the animation of the extent of the Chola Dynasty - it is very well done. Link

https://www.youtube.com/shorts/7vH1Kg2tHzA

Where do historical records come from?

Archaeological sites unearth and bring up signs of life, of their way of living, of town planning, of their water management, of their sanitation etc. Some are positive identifications, such as a well planned city or a sewage system. But a lot is speculative and open to different interpretations in the absence of written proof or the presence of cave drawings depicting rural life. With scientific advancement has come modern dating methods, sometimes accurate, sometimes way off the mark. Hence still speculative and open to challenges.

Archaeological excavations were plenty during the British rule in India, but they were coarsely done, the findings very speculative. Often, they came up with reasonings based on their biases.

As far as the archaeologist was concerned - quite a number of them missionaries, whose literary pursuits sometimes did not extend beyond their own religious book - were constrained by their own faith, which set timelines for the beginning of mankind and, later, Noah's flood. Hence, all of humanity and human civilisations could not exist prior to those dates. These assumptions are being proven wrong in many ways by today's scientists.

Even seasoned archaeologists make mistakes that distort history. For example, the Harappa digs established a date of around 3000 BCE, on the basis of samples taken from a certain depth that averaged the depth of the excavation. The sample was sent off to Europe for dating, who established a certain date. These laboratory tests were costly and the surveyors had a lot of budget constraints.

Decades later, at the same dig, samples from the upper layer, middle layer and lower layer were sent for analysis, with results of at least 5000 year antiquity between the middle and bottom layers.

(I am tempted to write a (future) article on the various aspects of excavations and how we can be deceived.)

A more accurate account of history can come from written records, whether scrolls or palm leaf scripts, stone carvings, metal (mostly copper) plate inscriptions. It is open only to the bias of the writer, but it can be the closest one can get to actual events, actual conditions.

Manuscripts on palm leaves, some with wooden covers.

If not destroyed by conquerors, the written palm leaf records can decay unless well preserved. 

A prime example was recorded during the reign of Raja Raja Cholan, one of the four great monarchs of the Chola dynasty. (11th century). He was searching for a particular piece of literature and asked his court scholar and poet, Thirunaraiyur Nambiyandar Nambi, to locate it. The poet found a huge cache of palm leaf scripts in an abandoned room of the Chidambaram Nataraja temple. The priests had to be arm twisted and persuaded to open the room, but the room was full of white ant ridden palm leaves - only 10% could be salvaged. Several copies of the salvaged scripts were made that survive to this day in air conditioned and temperature / humidity controlled vaults.

As a consequence of the priests of that temple being forced to open the vault doors, they themselves realised the necessity to preserve the records, hence they started their own library that exists (famously) to this day, know as the Saraswati Library.

Chidambaram Nataraja Temple

Straying away from the subject, I must say a few words about the Nataraja temple. Although built by the Pallavas, it was a revered structure even for the Cholas, who contributed to several renovations, expansions. Apart from the spiritual, one visit is a lifetime of cultural memories.

‘Chid’ is a word that means ‘consciousness,’ while 'ambaram' means ‘sky.’ Thus, ‘Chid-ambaram’ denotes the sky of consciousness that one aims towards.

It is one of the five holy sites of the followers of Lord Shiva, each one representing the five basic elements: ether, fire, water, earth and air, known as the ’panchalingams’.

The Chidambaram temple is dedicated to dance, with hundreds of carved frescoes on pillars and walls, each one representing some dance pose or other of the traditional ‘Bharatanatyam’ school of dance. The dance sculptures range from a few metres tall to tiny ones in size.

On a visit, I was admiring the carvings and, being tired, sat on a platform. A couple of metres from me was a lady, supervising a television crew, who were cleaning some of the frescoes prior to video taping them. The lady and I got into a conversation and I asked her what she was doing. The obvious answer came - she was video taping some of the dance forms for a TV show. We were conversing when she asked where I worked. On telling her that I was a Chief Engineer on a ship, she questioned me minutely on life at sea, the hazards, the ports. We must have spent an hour of blissful conversing, after which I left. I had not asked her her name.

A year later I attended a dance concert in Chennai, advertised as the performer being the topmost ‘Bharatanatyam’ exponent in the country. I was flabbergasted to see the dancer was my Chidambaram temple friend, who had been videographing the dance frescoes. After the show, I spoke to her and apologised for not having recognised her earlier, in the temple. Her name? Padma Subrahmanyam. Apart from the 'Padma Shri' and 'Padma Bhushan' awards, she has received more than a 100 other awards.

It is said that (unconfirmed), of the thousands of dance poses carved on the pillars and walls, not one pose is duplicated, nor a hairstyle, nor an ear ring, nor an anklet, nor a dress. A huge, stunning enterprise.

Now that I have written about the temple, it has created an urge, a yearning to once again visit Lord Nataraja's temple and partake of the bliss of those precincts.

A rather out-of-the-world, surreal ceremony is that of Shiva being put to bed at night. Watching that ceremony, one is filled with the feeling of fulfilment of life, that I have completed what my 'karma' had sent me to this earth in the first place - nothing else matters.

Last on the list of written records are something known as ‘Kalvettu’, literally meaning ‘carved in stone’. 

The above are actual photographs of, literally, ‘carved in stone’ - ‘kalvettu’ - history of some incident or other. Found in thousands of temples across Tamil Nadu, there are (staggering) miles and miles of messages carved.

Neglected for hundreds of years, they have recently come into the limelight, more because of a change in mindset of the populace not wanting to accept the anglicized, British colonial version of Indian history and have, thus, struck out on their own, to delve into parchments and stone inscriptions. 

The trouble was, almost all ‘kalvettus’ were thought to be nearly indecipherable as they were in archaic Tamil. But elderly linguists emerged who deciphered the script - now regular classes teaching the deciphering of this archaic Tamil are in vogue, leading to an explosion of young minds bringing to light events of the past.

For example, young “@UngalAnban Hemant” says that each ‘kalvettu’ story or history is divided into seven parts. A typical carving may record a donation by a devotee to the temple and is carved in the following format: 

1. ‘Mangalam’ - seeking blessings for the act

2. ‘Mei keerthi’ - lauding the reigning ruler

3. ‘Kalam’ - time and period of the inscription, donation

4. ‘Kodai Seithi’ - details and amount of the donation, whether land or money or jewels

5. ‘Saatchi’ - names of people who were witness to the donation

6. ‘Kapu Sol’ = translated loosely as the ruler thanking the donor

7. ‘Ezhudhiyavar’ - Name of the carver

Similarly, a king’s exploits, whether in war or in peace, may be carved in stone. Scholars are now searching far and wide for historical ‘kal vettu’.

Another source is the information contained in (surviving) palm leaf scrolls, copper plate inscriptions. I have visited a college in Kanchipuram, run by the Sankaracharya of Kamakoti, where a hushed, air conditioned hall was full of scholars either hand scanning old palm leaf scripts or others trying to decipher the writings. There are now quite a number of such libraries across Tamil Nadu, not too well funded.

As Sherlock Holmes says “The game is afoot”. With young brains now at work to bring us an uncensored and unbiased version of history, I await developments eagerly and hope it is within my lifetime. This wait is similar to the sensation that could be caused from the publishing of ‘declassified’ state or military secrets.

The Cholas built temples - mostly venerating Lord Shiva and Lord Muruga (known as ‘Kartikeya’ in the North) - by the thousands. In fact, their war cry - a vociferous chant before going into battle, prevalent even amongst today’s regiments - was “Vetrivel, Veeravel”. “Vettri” means victory; ‘Veeram” means bravery; “Vel” means the spear carried by Lord Murugan, son of Shiva. 

As an aside:

Gorkha Regiment battle cry : ‘Jai Mahakali, Ayo Gorkhali!’; ‘The Gurkhas are upon you!’ 

Punjab Regiment : Jo Bole So Nihal, Sat Sri Akal (Shout Aloud in Ecstasy, True is the Great Eternal God!)

For a short period, Jainism was accepted in the court, so they built Jain temples. For a short period, Buddhism was the religion in favour in the court, so they built Buddhist temples.

Buddhism and Jainism received patronage from the Chola rulers, which showed their tolerance, nay, acceptance towards a different faith. 

To quote Vivekananda: “I am proud to belong to a religion which has taught the world both tolerance and universal acceptance. We believe not only in universal toleration, but we accept all religions as true. I am proud to belong to a nation which has sheltered the persecuted and the refugees of all religions and all nations of the earth.”.

This acceptance was practised by the different dynasties that ruled South India, many centuries before Vivekananda uttered them in 1893.

To be ‘tolerant’ is to say “My faith (or religion) is greater than yours, but I will be magnanimous about your faith”; whereas ‘acceptance’ will mean that “my faith and your faith are no different”.

“Lokah Samastah Sukhino Bhavantu” means “may everyone, in the whole world, be happy.” - a Hindu prayer....

Most rulers of those periods were well read and many proficient in Tamil, Sanskrit and other languages, though the inclination towards Tamil was fierce, as it is today.

(Please do not credit me with knowledge of Sanskrit - I know nothing. I read Sanskrit script through Tamil).

So Jain monks and Buddhist monks took abode in caves and built their monasteries, just as in Ajanta and Ellora, with the locals and the more affluent Jains or Buddhists giving them grants of land or wealth or produce for their sustenance.

I quote KA Nilakanta Sastri, who is practically the Father of South Indian history:

“K.A.Nilakanta Sastri rightly observed that “Jainism had a fair following and enjoyed the patronage of princes and people, though not to the same extent as the orthodox creeds”. In fact, a systematic study of the Jaina epigraphs and monuments of the Cholas would reveal the ascendancy of Jaina religion and proliferation of its temples.

The Cholas’ rule, as of early times, also witnessed occupation of natural caves by recluses of the Jaina order. Such cave shelters are found in places like Anantamangalam, Atchippakkam, Melkudalur, Valatti, Pudukkalani, Tondur Cholavandipuram etc.

Most of these caverns were carved with fine rock-cut sculptures of Tirthankaras and their attendants. Provisions were made for the worship of these images and lighting of lamps in front of them. Members of the Jaina community made liberal land grants for the sustenance of the resident monks and the maintenance of the temples.”

Seventh Century Painting in Sittanavasal Cave

Sit-tan-na-va-yil, a Tamil word which means "the abode of great saints" 

There are several such monasterial caves, almost all with peeling paintings on the walls and the roofs.

Buddhism existed in the Chola empire till the 16th century. In fact, they were the artisans who created some of the beautiful bronzes (panchalohas) of that period. Most are now in the British Museums, or as Sashi Tharoor calls it, “the chor bazaar”.

The plaque in the museum reads:

Object Type : figure  Museum number : 1988,0425.1

Description:

A bronze figure of Saint Chandesha (Chandikeshvara) standing on a flat round base, with hands in anjali mudra..

Production ethnic group : Made by: Tamil  Cultures/periods : Chola

Production date : 1001-1050 (circa) (circa)

Production place : Made in: India (Tamilnadu) Asia: South Asia: India

Excavator/field collector : Field Collection by: C W E Cotton CSI

Findspot Found/Acquired: Chennai

Asia: South Asia: India: Tamil Nadu: Chennai District: Chennai

Materials : bronze

A lot more details are given in the plaque.

Description

Śiva in the 'anandatandava' position as Lord of Dance (Śiva Natarāja), with Ganga flowing through his hair and Apasmara, the dwarfish demon of ignorance, under his right foot. The god is shown at the end of one cycle and the beginning of another. The arch is broken above the proper left shoulder of the figure. Cast in a copper alloy.

Production ethnic group

Made by: Tamil

Cultures/periods

Chola (Reign of Kulotunga I)

Production date

1100 (circa) (circa)

Production place

Made in: Tamil Nadu

Asia: South Asia: India: Tamil Nadu

Made in: Thanjavur (probably)

Asia: South Asia: India: Tamil Nadu: Thanjavur District: Thanjavur

Materials

bronze (pancha loha)

The British museums are literally packed with art from the Chola period and more from other epochs. There will, definitely, be thousands of unexhibited ones lying in their underground, subterranean store rooms.

My oneiric fantasies include being the one to negotiate, seize and bring back all the stolen treasures. But they will remain just that : oneiric.

The Administration of the Cholas:

For economic prosperity, the outlook was three fold. 

First give peaceful and conducive climate in our own realm, in spite of the battles elsewhere, thereby not disturbing the equanimity of citizens, so that they will work and produce more.

Second, expand trade far and wide - export produce and products to bring in money into the treasury.

Thirdly, give the populace the means to grow crops by designing good irrigation systems, produce necessities and products that have the potential of being sold at high prices in foreign markets - mostly South East Asia, Middle East and Europe. Bronzes, pearls, textiles - especially the famous Kanchipuram silks and other works of art. Ships were also built and sold, mostly made of teak wood, using a method called ‘stitched ship’. (Am trying to research this, but very little material is available).

They had a very good set up of administrative roles which was pretty unique for those periods.

The king was supreme.

A few Ministers, were the conveyors of all decisions, most of which had been decided by a ‘think tank’ consisting of elders and intellectuals. There were three parts to the government: central, provincial and local. The central government had a complete secretariat, with different departments. There were nine provinces known as ‘mandalams’ - hence the name ‘Chola Mandalam’ - each province having a governor - known as ‘Mandala Mundlis’ or governors. The local government for towns and villages had their own assemblies. It seems all too familiar.

The above administrative structure is eerily reminiscent of today’s ISO Standards and ship'd “ISM Code”, which, to many of us, formed the foundation of our professional marine careers.

I had written about the marvel of engineering  in designing a well thought out irrigation system in my last narrative, so I will refrain from repeating it. The produce derived out of this marvellous irrigation system of the Kaveri delta formed the bedrock of their wealth, because of which they were able to undertake military and naval campaigns.

One of the awe inspiring structures built by Raja Raja Cholan is the Brahatheeswarar temple, which I hope to get to in the next blog.

The way things are going, it may be quite a while before I end the blogs on the Cholas. But I have enjoyed researching it and, then, writing it, editing it, restructuring it and, finally, publishing it.

If any of you prefer to to be left out of my ‘contact’ list, please give me a hint. These kind of blogs can be kinda boring to many.

Rangan